Earthworm Biology and Production¹

J. P. Martin, J. H. Black, and R. M. Hawthorne²

Many people are interested in raising earthworms as a hobby, for their own use, or as a source of income. Much interest in vermiculture (worm-raising) has been kindled by claims that earthworms:

• Are a major factor in soil improvement.
• Increase crop yields.
• Can be raised with relatively little time, effort, and expense.
• Are easily sold at high profits for a variety of uses.
• Produce manure (castings) that can also be sold at a profit to florists, nurserymen, and home and organic gardeners.

In response to such claims, many people have entered the earthworm business in the last few years.

Despite extravagant claims of enormous potential markets for earthworms in agriculture, in large-scale waste disposal systems, and as a source of food for animals and even people, the major use of earthworms today is as bait for freshwater sport fishing. Some worms are also sold to home and organic gardening enthusiasts for soil improvement and composting of organic refuse. Although research and development activities relating to other uses for worms are underway in various places, the opening of new markets for worms and castings will be slow and somewhat uncertain. Thus, anyone interested in the earthworm business should explore the potential local markets carefully, particularly if a full-time occupation is contemplated.

Some earthworm wholesalers sell breeder stock to new growers and promise to buy the worms back from the grower at a "going wholesale price." These wholesalers then resell the worms to bait shops, home and organic gardeners, and other users. Such an arrangement could help a new grower market his produce, but his success would depend almost entirely on the wholesaler's honesty and ability to meet his obligations to the grower. Prospective growers considering such an arrangement should check carefully with their local Better Business Bureau and Chamber of Commerce, and also with the wholesaler's customers, to determine his reputation before entering into a contract.

Establishing an earthworm business should not be done on a trial and error basis. Earthworms are a form of livestock, and with any form of livestock there are certain minimum requirements of care that must be met on a regular schedule. Additionally, a production or control method effective in one geographic location may not work in another. New earthworm growers should also consider entering the business on a small scale and learn to raise worms successfully before attempting mass production. To help the potential new grower this publication describes the earthworm as a biological animal, discusses the earthworms' effect on soil improvement and fertility, and outlines proved worm-production methods and materials. All of the available information on these subjects cannot be covered herein, but readers interested in more detailed information are referred to the publications listed at the end of the text.

Taxonomy

Earthworms are scientifically classified as animals belonging to the order Oligochaeta, class Chaetopoda, phylum Annelida. In this phylum there are about 1,800 species of earthworms grouped into five families and distributed all over the world. The most common worms in North America, Europe, and Western Asia belong to the family Lumbricidae, which has about 220 species. Earthworms range from a few millimeters long to over 3 feet, but most common species are a few inches in length. Only a few types are of interest to the commercial earthworm grower, and of these only two are raised on a large-scale commercial basis. Some of the more common species used for bait are the following.

Nightcrawlers. This earthworm is common to the northern states and may be picked from fields and lawns at night for commercial fish-bait sale. Although very popular with fishermen, they are not commonly raised on a commercial basis because they reproduce slowly and require special production and control procedures.

Field worms (also known as garden worms). These make excellent fish bait and are often preferred by those who want a small number of worms for their own use. They are not prolific breeders, so are not recommended for commercial enterprises.

Manure worms (also known as bandlings, red worms, or angleworms because of their squirming reactions when handled). These are particularly adaptable to commercial production and are one of the two types most commonly grown by successful worm farmers.

Red worms. These are basically another type of manure worm, differing mainly in size and color from their larger and darker cousins. They are also very adaptable to commercial production, and together with manure worms constitute about 80 to 90 percent of commercially-produced worms.

Manure worms and red worms can adapt to living in many different environments. They will eat almost any organic matter at some stage of decomposition, as well as many other types of materials which contain organic substances that can be ingested.

These worms may be found in manure piles or in soils containing large quantities of organic matter, but the new grower should purchase breeding stock from a reputable grower or distributor. Breeder worms may be purchased in lots as small as 1,000 worms. (One 8-foot by 3-foot by 1-foot deep bin, however, may contain 100,000 worms or more.)

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Biology

Because the physical structure of earthworms varies only slightly from one species to another, a description of one species will apply in most respects to any other. In this section, the nightcrawler, Lumbricus terrestris, is used for descriptive purposes.

The earthworm, while primitive, has well-developed nervous, circulatory, digestive, excretory, muscular, and reproductive systems, the major elements of which are shown in Figure 1 . The most noticeable external feature ( Figure 2 ) is the ringing or segmentation of the body, which is not merely external but involves nearly all of the internal structure. The nightcrawler has about 150 segments, while manure and red worms have approximately 95. Segmentation within the earthworm serves the same general function as the division of the animal body into organs--that is, different segments perform different functions.

Figure 1. Internal structure of the earthworm, Lumbricus terrestris (Courtesy of R.E. Gaddie, North American Bait Farms, Inc., Ontario, California).

Figure 2. External structure of the earthworm, Lumbricus terrestris (Courtesy of R.E. Gaddie, North American Bait Farms, Inc., Ontario, California).

The first section of the earthworm, the anterior end or head, consists of the mouth and the prostomium, a lobe which serves as a covering for the mouth and as a wedge to force open cracks in the soil into which the earthworm may crawl. Small hair-like structures, called setae (bristles), are located on each segment. These can be extended or retracted and a principal function is for movement. The worm's lack of protruding structures other than setae facilitates efficient burrowing; in addition, various skin glands secrete a lubricating mucus which aids movement through the earth and helps to stabilize burrows and casts.

The earthworm's digestive tract is highly adapted to its burrowing and feeding activities. The worm swallows soil (including decomposing organic residues in the soil) or residues and plant litter on the soil surface. Strong muscles mix the swallowed material and pass it through the digestive tract as digestive fluids containing enzymes are secreted and mixed with the materials. The digestive fluids release amino acids, sugars, and other smaller organic molecules from the organic residues (which include living protozoa, nematodes, bacteria, fungi, and other microorganiams as well as partially decomposed plant and animal materials). The simpler molecules are absorbed through intestinal membranes and are utilized for energy and cell synthesis.

Earthworms lack specialized breathing devices. Respiratory exchange occurs through the body surface.

Reproduction. Earthworms are usually not self-mating although they are hermaphroditic (each individual possesses both male and female reproductive organs). A mutual exchange of sperm occurs between two worms during mating. Mature sperm and egg cells and nutritive fluid are deposited in cocoons produced by the clitellum, a conspicuous, girdle-like structure near the anterior end of the body. The ova (eggs) are fertilized by the sperm cells within the cocoon, which then slips off the worm and is deposited in or on the soil. The eggs hatch after about 3 weeks, each cocoon producing from two to twenty baby worms with an average of four.

Earthworms and Soil Productivity

Numerous investigators have pointed out the beneficial effects of earthworms on soil properties. Some important effects are the following.

• Earthworms aid in the degradation of organic residues in the soil with the release of elements such as carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and other nutrients.
• The action of the digestive fluids and increased microbial activity in the casts (droppings) tends to solubilize inorganic plant nutrient elements present in inorganic soil minerals.
• The structural stability of ingested soil is improved through increased microbial activity while the soil is within the worm and after it has been deposited as casts.
• The extensive burrowing of the earthworm improves soil aeration.
• Burrowing may also increase water penetration into soils.
• Under natural conditions the earthworm will feed on surface organic litter and deposit its casts in the plant root zone. Upon further microbial decomposition of the partially digested residues, plant nutrient elements are released.

Although earthworms are considered beneficial to soil productivity or plant growth, few valid studies have been made to determine whether their presence will significantly improve plant growth. In one study Hopp and Slater (1949) found that growth of clover was improved by earthworm activity in a poorly aggregated, clay-type soil, but in another study Chadwick and Bradley (1948) were unable to demonstrate increased crop productivity. More studies with a variety of soils and plants are needed to further elucidate this. However, other soil organisms and plant root activity may exert the same or similar beneficial effects on soil properties and positive results may not be expected in all soils.

Before considering inoculation (introduction of worms to soil) one should keep in mind that the earthworm is a natural component of the soil population. If the soil is properly managed this natural population will thrive. Soil conditions where inoculation could possibly be of benefit are found in newly prepared farmland or in yards where soils are low in organic matter, dispersed, or very acid and with few indigenous earthworms. In such soils, inoculation with vigorous species and proper management may increase the earthworm population more rapidly than natural processes would.

To inoculate, an earthworm species which can adapt to harsh soil environment should be selected, a food source for the worms should be provided, and the soil should be limed if acid. (If a farmer inoculates his soil with earthworms, it will probably be a one-time operation.) Before growing worms for use in commercial agriculture, one should be aware of the above considerations, and should also realize that soil inoculation of commercial farms with earthworms is not a common practice in this country at this time.

Spent earthworm manure may be used in a potting mixture, as an organic soil amendment, or as an organic fertilizer. Its nutrient value will depend largely on the nutrient content of the organic products used, and could be considered equivalent to a compost prepared from the same organic residues. However, considerable quantities of nutrients (especially nitrogen) are removed from the residues when worms are harvested.

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Production

The basic environmental factors which affect earthworm breeding, growth, and general health are: temperature, moisture, aeration, food material, and pH (acidity-alkalinity).

Temperature

Earthworms will die in freezing temperatures, so they protect themselves by moving to lower depths in growing-beds or soils. On the other hand. they will live and breed at temperatures up to about 85 or 90°F, and some species or strains will survive at 100°F in well-shaded moist locations. For commercial earthworm production, ideal temperatures for growth and activity range from 60 to 80°F. For intensive cocoon production and hatching, bed temperatures should be between 60 and 70°F.

Moisture

Earthworms require adequate moisture for growth and survival. Beds should be crumbly moist, not soggy wet. They should not be exposed directly to hot sunshine, because this may cause drying and heating which will adversely affect the worms and may stop reproduction. To enhance cocoon production after worms are fully established, the beds should not be sprinkled for several days or until the top 1 or 2 inches are barely moist. They should then be sprinkled sufficiently to restore them to their normal moisture content.

Aeration

Earthworms can live at relatively low oxygen and high carbon dioxide levels, and can even survive submerged in water if the water contains dissolved oxygen. In the complete absence of oxygen, however, they may be adversely affected or may die. The oxygen may be depleted if the beds are kept soggy wet--under such conditions it is possible that anaerobic bacteria could produce toxic substances.

pH (Acidity-Alkalinity)

Earthworms will grow over a pH range of about 4.2 (acid) to 8.0 (alkaline) or higher. For commercial production, however, it is considered best to maintain the pH of beds around neutrality (pH 7.0). pH levels should be checked regularly with litmus paper or a pH kit, which is available in most feed stores. Lime (calcium carbonate) may be mixed with bedding material to correct acidity or to maintain a more favorable pH.

Beds

Frames for earthworm beds may be constructed of almost any convenient material, but lumber or concrete are generally used for larger beds; it is not necessary to have a bottom on them. For smaller operations, one could use half barrels of wood or steel, discarded refrigerators, washing machine tubs, or other large enough metal or wooden receptacles. If these containers have a solid bottom, holes should be provided for drainage. For better temperature control, the frames or containers should be partially buried in the soil. The worms can also be grown in pits in the ground or in row piles on the soil surface. Outdoor beds should be located in a well-shaded spot or under an open-shed roof. Indoor beds should be placed where there is adequate drainage and ventilation. A bed 8 feet long by 3 feet wide by 1 foot deep will accommodate about 100,000 bed-run earthworms, or approximately 25,000 mature breeders. While some growers consider these numbers excessive, such levels are recommended for forced breeding and increased production. The beds must be thinned out by harvesting about every 30 days or by dividing every 60 to 90 days.

Bedding Materials

A good earthworm bedding material should retain moisture, remain loose in the pile, and should not contain excessive amounts of high protein or other readily degradable organic nitrogen compounds. These compounds would be quickly degraded with the release of ammonia and this might temporarily increase the pH of bedding material to 8 or higher, which is not good for the worms. Additionally, at high pH values much of the ammonia will be in the undissociated (gaseous) form, which is toxic.

Almost any organic residue material, including plant wastes and most bulky animal manures, are suitable for bedding. Some growers mix sandy loam topsoil with the bedding material, but this is not needed and will increase handling time or costs and may decrease yields. Horse and rabbit manures are considered to be ideal.

If the bedding material has not already undergone considerable microbial decay, or if it contains high amounts of readily degradable carbohydrates and other organic substances, it will heat in the beds. Under these conditions temperatures inside the pile could reach 150°F or higher, which would kill worms. Therefore, materials of this type should be composted (aged) beyond the heating stage. This is accomplished by making a flat-top pile or piles. These should be moistened, and turned at intervals to improve aeration, check on moisture conditions, and to return organic material on edges and top to the middle of the pile(s). When the heating stage has passed, material should be well-mixed and chopped if necessary. High salt concentrations may reduce cocoon formation and worm body weight, so after aging the bedding material should be leached to remove excessive salts. It is then placed in the beds to a depth of 8 to 10 inches.

Leaching to remove salts can also be accomplished in the beds by flooding daily for about 5 days. The process may be facilitated by turning on the third day. After leaching keep bedding material moist but do not flood, and check the temperature of the bedding material again. If it remains below 80°F after 5 to 6 days the beds may be stocked with earthworms.

After worms are added, bedding should be kept moist but not soggy and turned once every 2 or 3 weeks to keep it loose.

About every 6 months the old bedding should be replaced with properly prepared new bedding. To change bedding, remove the top 5 or 6 inches (where most of the worms are), and harvest the remaining worms as described below. Then remove the remaining old bedding (castings) and pile it for other uses. Fill bins with new bedding, replace the top layer with the worms, and continue feeding.

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Feeds and Feeding

Animal manures, garden compost, shredded or chopped cardboard, wood or paper, or almost any decaying organic matter or organic waste product may be used as feed or to produce feed for earthworms. Dairy, steer, horse, and rabbit manures are excellent feeds. Low-nutrient feeds need to be supplemented with high protein or nitrogen materials such as grains, mashes, and cotton seed meal. High carbohydrate, bulky, or woody wastes should be aged or composted beyond the heating stage and then leached if excessive salts are present. If composting is required, supplemental nitrogen can also be added as inorganic nitrogen fertilizers, blood meal, chicken manure or urea at the beginning of the composting process (about ½ to 1 pounds nitrogen to 100 pounds dry-weight bulky residue). Organisms decomposing the carbohydrates will convert nitrogen into microbial proteins and other microbial products which are good sources of nitrogen for the worms. The feed and supplements can be used straight, or can be mixed with 20% to 30% horse manure or old pine sawdust or shavings, and spread on top of the bedding in thin strips or patties. This method of feeding will draw the worms to the top of the beds where they may be harvested most easily.

Worms should be fed regularly, usually once a week. The best guide to feeding schedules and amounts is the rate of consumption of the last feeding and the condition of the worms. When the last of the feed is almost gone, it is time to feed again. If the worms do not seem to be growing or multiplying, they may need more protein.

Fattening Earthworms

Earthworms may be force-fattened so that their girth and weight double. A good method is to prepare several new beds with only 6 inches of bedding and soak until almost soggy wet. Harvest the regular beds, place the harvested worms in the fattening beds, and feed them straight mash or meal. If they are very active, which they should be within a day or two of transfer, feed them twice daily. The worms will be ready for harvesting and selling in 7 to 10 days.

Harvesting

Earthworm beds should be harvested on a regular basis to ensure maximum worm production and minimum disturbance of beds. Regular harvesting (usually every 30 days) thins out the population, allows more feed and area per remaining worm, and keeps bedding loose and porous so that the worms can move more easily to feed and breed.

The harvesting method most commonly used by larger earthworm farms is known as "table harvesting" and it will work equally well for the average backyard grower. First obtain a table or board which can be placed next to or across the worm-bed frame. A plywood sheet covered with waterproof plastic will serve the purpose, or a smooth waterproof covering may be placed over the table. One or more containers for the harvested worms, and about 2 inches of pre-soaked peat moss for the bottom of each container, will also be needed. Use a pitchfork to carefully lift off the top 3 or 4 inches of bedding (which will contain most of the worms) and place onto the harvesting board. Harvesting should always be done in bright sunlight or in the light of a bright overhead bulb--the worms will burrow down nearer the bottom of the bedding to escape the light. Using either your hands or a small whisk broom, gently sweep off the top 2 inches of the bedding pile. Wait a few moments for the worms to burrow down again, and repeat the process. Eventually, when all the bedding has been swept off the pile, a solid mass of worms will remain.

Grading and Counting

Earthworms are sold by weight or by count, and there are two grades: bed-run (worms of all sizes) and bait-size (worms 2½ inches or longer when drawn up and with bodies at least 1/8 inch in diameter.) If worms are to be sold for bait or breeding stock, one will need to sort out the bait-size worms from the rest by hand. This is best done while harvesting. The smaller worms are immediately put back into the beds and the larger ones put in the containers.

Packaging and Storing

Earthworm growers use a wide variety of packaging methods and containers, but more and more successful growers are using containers especially designed for holding and shipping worms. Such containers are available from various suppliers, and can often be purchased from an earthworm wholesaling company or distributor. Containers range in size from half-pints (holding 50 bait-size worms) up to gallon cartons holding 1,000 bait-size or 1,500 to 2,000 bed-run earthworms. Containers should be made of plastic or wax-coated cardboard to retain moisture and resist eating by the worms. Small holes should be punched for air. Worms should always be stored in cool, well-shaded locations. Boxes should be securely tied or fastened with heavy shipping tape, and clearly marked on the outside:

Live Earthworms. Handle with Care. Do Not Expose to Extreme Heat or Cold.

Selling the Worms

If one can start a business as a contract grower for an established wholesaler, he will already have a steady market for bait-size worms. To make higher profits, however, many new growers decide to go into the business either as independent wholesalers or retailers. In either case, there are several options available for sale of earthworms. If one lives in an area near or on the way to freshwater fishing resorts, he may sell his worms to fishermen passing by his home. (Check with the local zoning authority to be sure such a business is permitted in the area.)

Sales may also be made to locally-owned sporting goods or fishing tackle stores, although most of the larger stores of this type rely on established wholesalers for their bait supplies. One may also sell earthworms by mail by placing a classified advertisement in one or more of the national magazines directed to fishermen and to organic home gardeners. Pet shops selling certain kinds of birds or fish may buy worms as food for their inventory. High school and college biology classes use worms for dissecting. Such markets are limited, however, and are not adequate to handle large volume sales.

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Earthworm Pests and Diseases

Earthworms are subject to attack by a variety of pests. However, information on the full significance of the relationship between earthworms and their predators and parasites is scarce. Earthworm enemies are: ants, springtails, centipedes, slugs, mites, certain beetle larvae, birds, rats, snakes, moles, mice, gophers, toads, and other insects or animals which feed on worms or molest them. The earthworm also has quite a number of internal parasites including numerous protozoa, some nematodes, and the larvae of certain flies. Larger predators can be excluded from worm beds by proper construction of the bins, and by use of screens or gratings at the bottom and top of beds. The arthropods (mites, springtails, and ants) are probably of greatest concern to the earthworm grower.

Mites

"Red mites" or "fishworm mites" ( Figure 3 ) frequently become a limiting factor in worm production. They are natural inhabitants of manures and similar organic materials, and all worm beds contain low-level populations of mites which under certain conditions reach extremely high levels. Several species of mites are present in most worm beds, but the most important is the earthworm mite, Uropoda agitans (also called Fuscuropoda agitans). These brown-to-reddish mites are small, although readily visible without magnification. They are found most abundantly near the surface and edges of worm beds and around feed concentrations. They do not normally attack earthworms, but they do consume worm feed. When mite populations are high, worms will stay deep in the beds and refuse to come to the surface to feed; this results in poor worm-growth and reproduction.

Figure 3. The earthworm mite, Uropoda agitans. Also called Fuscuropoda agitans. Ventral view of female (Courtesy of Edward Baker).

Control — A control program is designed to keep pest populations below damaging levels. The best control for earthworm mites is prevention, and proper management thus becomes the most important aspect of mite control. High earthworm mite populations are nearly always associated with one or more of the following conditions: (1) over-watering, (2) over-feeding, and (3) feeding of wet or fleshy garbage. Bed conditions ideal for worm production are not conducive to high mite populations. Conversely, beds with high mite populations are being improperly managed for optimum worm production. Feeding schedules should be maintained so that all feed is consumed in a few days, thus preventing accumulations of "soured" feed in the beds. Feeding schedules will vary depending upon time of year and prevailing temperatures.

Worm beds with poor drainage frequently become too wet, creating conditions less favorable to worms and more favorable to mites. Watering schedules should be adjusted to prevailing weather so as not to keep the beds too wet.

High mite populations are frequently associated with the feeding of garbage, lettuce leaves, and other vegetable refuse having high moisture content. Use of such feed should be discontinued until mites are under control and further use should be with discretion.

When mites start to build up, uncover the beds and expose them to the sun for a few hours. Cut down on amounts of feed and water. In small worm beds one can remove large numbers of mites by placing wetted newspapers or burlap bags on the bed surfaces; mites will accumulate on them and can then be removed. By repeating this procedure, substantial population reductions can be accomplished. When mite and other insect populations build up in the beds, some growers attempt to reduce them by a heavy watering to force the pests to the surface and then burning them with a hand-held torch. However, physical or chemical removal of mites will be of only temporary benefit unless bed conditions are altered to create a less desirable environment for the mites.

Ants

Several species of ants may occasionally be a problem or annoyance to the worm grower. Ants are attracted to high-concentrate feed in worm beds, and some species are reported to feed on eggs and small worms. Physical barriers can be placed around worm beds to keep ants out. Ants can be controlled with insecticidal sprays and baits, but precautions should be taken to prevent injury to the worms by treatment.

Springtails

Springtails ( Figure 4 ) are small, white to gray oblong insects that jump when disturbed. They can sometimes become abundant enough to turn the surface of a bed white. Apparently, their greatest harm is feed consumption, but they have been observed to attack and consume weak or dead worms. When springtails are abundant, worms stay deep in the beds and refuse to come to the surface to feed (as described in "Mites"). The general management procedure discussed under mite control is also the best procedure for springtail control. Chemical control of springtails has not been effective.

Figure 4. The springtail, Collembola.

White Worms

Small, white-tan, threadlike worms called planaria (most common are Bipalium sp.) are often found in earthworm beds. They are common in fecal material and eventually get into worm production beds via manures. These species are considered to be serious predators of earthworms in the warm, humid environment of Florida, and have been responsible for total destruction of worm populations in extreme cases. Basic information about these worms can be found in a publication of the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry: "Land Planarians," Nematology Circular No. 75, by R. P. Esser. To obtain a copy, contact FDACS-DPI at P.O. Box 147100, Gainesville, FL 32614-7100.

Earthworm Castings

Castings are a natural by-product of earthworms and are rich in organic matter and nutrients for plants. When added to normal soils in gardens or lawns, they will provide the same kinds of benefits as other bulky organic fertilizers. Castings today are not commonly used as fertilizer by large commercial plant growers, because their cost is relatively high compared to other fertilizers containing the same or greater amounts of nutrients. However, castings are used by some organic gardeners, and are sold commercially in a few nurseries as a soil amendment or planting medium for ornamental plants grown in baskets or flowerpots.

References

1. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. 1970. "Earthworms for bait." U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Fish Hatcheries. Leaflet FL-23. (This leaflet is being revised.)
2. Chadwick, L. C. and K. Bradley. 1948. "An experimental study of the effects of certain earthworms on crop production." Proceedings Amer. Soc. for Horticulture Science 51:552-62.
3. Douglas, D. E., and Gaddie, R. E. 1975. "Earthworms for ecology and profit." Vol. I. Scientific earthworm farming Bookworm Publishing Co., P. O. Box 655, Ontario, CA 91761.
4. Edwards, C. A., and Lofty, J. R. 1972. Biology of earthworms. Chapman and Hall, Ltd. (Available from John Wiley, 605 Third Ave., New York, N. Y. 10022).
5. Home, Farm & Garden Research Associates. Let an earthworm be your garbage man. (Available from Shields Publications, Box 472, Elgin, IL 60120).
6. Hopp, Henry. What every gardener should know about earthworms. Garden Way Publishing, Charlotte, Vermont 05445.
7. Hopp, H., and C. S. Slater. 1949. "The effects of earthworms on the productivity of agricultural soil." Jour. Agri. Research 78:325-339.
8. Satchell, J. E. 1967. "Lumbricidae." In: Soil Biology. A. Burges and F. Raw (eds.). Academic Press, New York. pp.259-322.
9. Schaller, F. 1968. Soil Animals. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
10. Shields, E. B. Earthworm buyer's guide and directory. Shields Publications, Box 472, Elgin, IL 60120.

Footnotes

1. This document is Circular 455, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. It was originally published as Leaflet 2828 for the Division of Agricultural Sciences at the University of California, July 1976, and was reprinted as FCES Circular 455 in May 1979. Circular 455 was revised October 1999. Please visit the EDIS Web site at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu
2. The authors of Leaflet 2828 are J. P. Martin, professor of Soil Science, Riverside, CA; J. H. Black, Farm Advisor (Entomology), Kern County, Bakersfield, CA; and R. M. Hawthorne, survey entomologist, Division of Plant Industry, State Department of Food and Agriculture, Sacramento, CA. This publication was reviewed for use in Florida by R. A. Dunn, professor, Department of Entomology and Nematology, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611. Information on white worms (under "Earthworm Pests and Diseases") was modified by Dr. Dunn in 1998 to reflect Florida conditions. This publication was printed with permission of the authors and Cooperative Extension, an educational agency of the University of California and the United States Department of Agriculture.

The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Employment Opportunity - Affirmative Action Employer authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function without regard to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions or affiliations. For information on obtaining other extension publications, contact your county Cooperative Extension Service office.

Florida Cooperative Extension Service / Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences / University of Florida / Larry R. Arrington, Interim Dean

Copyright Information

This document is copyrighted by the University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS) for the people of the State of Florida. UF/IFAS retains all rights under all conventions, but permits free reproduction by all agents and offices of the Cooperative Extension Service and the people of the State of Florida. Permission is granted to others to use these materials in part or in full for educational purposes, provided that full credit is given to the UF/IFAS, citing the publication, its source, and date of publication.

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What is Vermicomposting | Worm Bin Location
Building your Worm Bin | Set up | Feeding
Basic Worm Bin Care | Troubleshooting
Harvesting Worms and Castings | Food and Organic Compost Tea
Advanced Topics | Earthworm Biology and Production